Boulder County Rural Living Resource Guide: Livestock

In this section, we’ll provide some basic information and resources for various livestock species.

Introduction

One of the first things to consider when entertaining the idea of raising domestic livestock is
whether the enterprise you are considering is compatible with your lifestyle, the community
you live in and your property. Is your property zoned for large animal production? How many
animals can you legally have? How much forage does your property produce or does your
property support? How much money do you have to purchase hay? How will your neighbors
react to your project?

Livestock ownership is a 24/7, 365 day a year proposition. If you need to be away from the
property, you must have someone lined up and trained to care for your livestock while you are
away. You must be prepared to take care of the animals in all conditions, evacuate them in
emergencies, and provide veterinary care for them. If your property does not produce enough
forage or during drought you must be financially able to purchase additional feed or be
prepared to sell some or all of your animals possibly at a loss. Depending on your reason for
purchasing the livestock, you must be prepared to slaughter them or to take care of a carcass
when they die. There are rules for burying carcasses on your property. Check with the
Colorado Department of Agriculture or Boulder County Public Health for information. There
are also rendering and disposal companies that haul carcasses off for a fee.

All livestock properties should have biosecurity (how you prevent disease from coming on to
the property or manage spread once it is onsite), emergency preparedness and evacuation
plans. The Extension Office can help develop these plans.

Some acreages are only suitable for forage production while others are suitable for limited
grazing. If you have irrigation water available, you might be in a situation where you can
handle a relatively small number of livestock. Depending on the vegetation on your property
and irrigation water, the average amount of land to support 1 cow or horse is 25-40 acres
without supplemental feed for a year. Land Use Codes may allow you more animals per acre
than the land can support. A corral, sacrifice area or dry lot, must be available to keep the
animals in when irrigating, and when the pasture needs rest from grazing. If there is adequate
acreage, you might consider raising some of your own forage. Realize that it is expensive to
own and maintain forage harvesting equipment that is only used once or twice a year. While it
may not be economically feasible to own equipment, bringing in custom operators may be
an option.

If you decide you want to raise livestock to sell the meat or wool make sure that you have
done your market research and know your market prior to purchasing the animals. You need
to know the food regulations for processing meat. Any meat that you plan to sell to the public
(i.e. at a farmer’s market) needs to have been processed at a USDA inspected facility. If you
are producing only for family or through a CSA (Community Supported Agriculture), those
rules and regulations are different. Take the time to investigate your options and the
regulations prior to purchasing the livestock.

Wildlife and pets do not always mix with livestock. You may need to improve enclosures to
keep pets and wildlife out of livestock areas or invest in a guard animal such as a llama or
dog to protect your livestock.

Livestock Healthcare

Prior to purchasing your livestock, identify and develop a relationship with a veterinarian in
your area that treats your livestock species. You may want them to visit your property either
before or just after you get your livestock to check out your facility or to check out the
livestock prior to purchase. Building a relationship with the veterinarian prior to the midnight
emergency call is essential.

With any livestock, follow the recommendations of your veterinarian concerning
vaccinations, wormings and other healthcare issues. In addition to identifying a veterinarian,
you may need to identify a farrier for horses, someone to trim hooves for goats, llamas and
alpacas and a shearer. You can learn to take care of vaccinations, wormings and hoof
trimming yourself if this interests you. Talk to other livestock owners in your area to see who
they use.

Water Quality for Livestock

Although most livestock can tolerate water quality that may be unsuitable for human
consumption, very poor water quality can impact livestock health, reproduction and
performance. If the water quality of your livestock’s drinking water is unknown, it should be
tested for salinity, pH, sulfate, nitrate and potential toxic elements such as selenium.

References:

National Center for Appropriate Technology Resources
https://attra.ncat.org/livestock-and-pasture/
Colorado Department of Agriculture Resources
https://ag.colorado.gov/animals
Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment
https://cdphe.colorado.gov/hm/swguidance
Utah State University Extension Resources
https://extension.usu.edu/agriculture-and-natural-resources/index
Colorado State University Extension Resources
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/

Colorado Fence and Trespass Law

Colorado is an “open range” state and meaning that it is the landowner’s responsibility to
“fence out” any livestock that may come on your property. It is not the livestock owner’s
responsibility to fence their livestock, so they remain within their pasture/range boundaries
although most do to protect their livestock. Open range is a land definition, not a law.

The old adage “Good fences make good neighbors” rings true still today. The Colorado
fence law goes back to the early 1880’s and is very different from many other states and
regions. The Colorado Revised Statute pertaining to fence law is CRS 35-46-101. Livestock
invading your fenced property is not a criminal offense, but civil recourse may be available
to the landowner with a “Lawful Fence” for damages incurred.

Colorado Fence Law addresses key items like defining what is a lawful fence, who is
responsible for construction and maintenance of a lawful fence and who can claim
damages for trespass. The Colorado Statutes #35-46-101 clearly defines two important
terms for addressing issues that apply to fencing and trespass “Lawful Fence” and
“Livestock”. The following are the definition of the terms from the Colorado Revised
Statutes and they should be referred to when building, maintaining, repairing and replacing
any fences.

A “Lawful Fence” is defined as a “well-constructed three barbed wire fence with substantial
posts set at a distance of approximately 20 feet apart, and sufficient to turn ordinary horses
and cattle, with all gates equally as good as the fence, or any other fence of like efficiency.”
“Livestock” includes horses, cattle, mules, donkeys, goats, sheep, swine, and buffalo
(bison).

According to the Colorado Department of Agriculture, Colorado’s “Fence Law” will not
prohibit any legal action for any escaped livestock involved in an accident on the public
highways.

If you do have a “Lawful Fence”, but another’s livestock are on your property, the burden of
proof falls upon you, the property owner, to prove that the livestock broke through a “Lawful
Fence” and did not simply walk through an open gate, unfenced portion or a broken fence.
It is legal to take possession of livestock that have trespassed on your property, but if you
do keep that livestock, you also become legally responsible to feed and care for the
livestock. (CRS 35-46-102) You must also notify your local brand inspector and the sheriff’s
office when livestock is being held for trespass damage.

Construction and Maintenance of “Lawful Fence”

Colorado Statute #35-46-112 puts the burden of the construction cost or repair of a fence
on adjoining properties on both landowners. Caution should be taken in that the statute
only requires a landowner to meet the standard of the definition of a lawful fence. If one
landowner wants to make the fence to a higher standard that landowner may be
responsible for the additional costs. In any case, they should follow the procedure set forth
in Statute #35-46-113 – If after thirty days written notice (certified letter), served personally
or by registered mail by either owner or tenant of another, if such owner neglects or refuses
to erect or repair one-half of the partition fence, the person giving notice then may
undertake repairs and may collect by a civil action one-half of the cost, refers only to a
“Lawful Fence”. It is always good practice to have written documentation of all agreements
and how you complied with the above procedure before purchasing any materials.

Livestock Trespass

Colorado Statute #35-46-102 does give provision that helps protect landowners from stock
producers that knowingly drive herds on to another person’s land or from repeated
livestock trespass where a “Lawful Fence” is in place and maintained to recover damages
through a civil court process. In any case of livestock trespass, it is best that you keep local
sheriff’s office and brand inspection office (a division of the Colorado Department of
Agriculture) involved.

There are some generalizations that can be made in helping with issues that arise between
neighbors in regard to livestock and fencing:

Always refer to updated Colorado Revised Statutes on Fencing Laws and consult
with local law enforcement and brand inspection.
Make sure that a “Lawful Fence” is in place and that it is regularly maintained.
Colorado fence laws favor the livestock owner and put the duty of protecting
property on the landowner.
An open and good working relationship with adjacent landowners is the best
prevention for issues with livestock and fencing.

References:

Open Range and Fencing, Colorado Department of Agriculture
https://ag.colorado.gov/brands/open-range-and-fencing
Fencing with Wildlife in Mind, Colorado State University Extension
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/fencing-with-wildlife-in-mind/
Colorado Parks and Wildlife’s “Fences and Wildlife”, Colorado Wildlife Federation
https://coloradowildlife.org/cpws-fences-and-wildlife/
Planning Fencing Systems for Intensive Grazing Management, University of Kentucky
Cooperative Extension Service
https://publications.mgcafe.uky.edu/id-74
Planning and Building Fences on the Farm, University of Tennessee Extension
https://solutions.tennessee.edu/publication/PB1541/

Poisonous Plants for Livestock

If you are pasturing livestock, be aware that there are some plants that are poisonous to
animals. Some are native plants, not noxious weeds, but they are still undesirable in the
pasture (but are fine in areas where livestock doesn’t graze). Others are noxious weeds and
thus should be managed. While many poisonous plants have an unpleasant taste that
animals avoid, if other forage is limited due to drought or overgrazing, livestock may graze
them anyway or even develop a taste for them. Some plants cause extreme photosensitivity/sunburn due to liver disease, others cause only temporary symptoms until
the animal is removed from the plant source, while others cause incurable symptoms or
death even after the animal is removed from the source. Livestock owners should inspect
their pasture prior to turning animals out to graze for the first time each season. Watch for
unusual behavior in your animals. If you suspect a poisoning, consult a veterinarian as
soon as possible. Be sure to collect plant samples you suspect caused the poisoning for
positive identification.

The Six Worst Plants for Horses (according to Colorado’s Poisonous Menace booklet)

Senecio (Senecio spp.) (S. jacobea or tansy ragwort is a List A noxious weed.
There are many species of native Senecios, many of which are toxic).
Houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale) Also a list B noxious weed.
Locoweed (Oxytropis lambertii and sericea and Astragalus molissimus) All
grazing animals are affected, damage is often irreversible. These are native
plants.
Sages (Artemisia frigida, A. ludoviciana, these are native plants) (A. absinthium
is a list B noxious weed but is rare on the front range). Sage poisoning is most
pronounced in wintertime when heavy snow covers the lower growing range
grasses. Horses can eat sage without problem provided they are not forced to
eat it exclusively when other forages are scarce.
Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens) Also a list B Noxious weed (rare in the
Front Range mountains) is only toxic to horses and can cause an irreversible and
usually fatal brain disease.

Other Common Plants that may be Poisonous to Livestock (list is not necessarily comprehensive)

Golden Banner (Thermopsis divaricarpa) Native
Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) Native, all plants in the Prunus family contain
cyanide and are poisonous.
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) Non-native
Larkspur (Delphinium spp.) (Causes more fatal poisoning of cattle than any
other naturally occurring species – horses are less susceptible) Native
Monkshood (Aconitum spp.) Native
Lupines (Lupinus spp.) Native
Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) Non-native
Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) Non-native List C noxious weed.
Water hemlock (Cicuta maculata) Native
Death Camas (Anticlea elegans, or at lower elevations, Toxicoscordion
venenosum) Native
Flixweed (Descurainia sophia) Non-native
Field Bindweed, morning glory (Convolvulus arvensis) Non-native
Nightshades (Solanum spp.) Both native and non-native
Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) Native

Other plants and weeds may become poisonous to livestock when they accumulate high
levels of certain elements such as nitrogen (in the form of nitrates) or selenium. Kochia, a
common nuisance weed, can accumulate toxic nitrate levels when growing in an over
fertilized area or drylot (excess nitrates due to urine accumulation). In certain areas in
Boulder County, soils contain higher selenium levels. Forage plants grown in these soils
can take up and store excess selenium levels. Having hay tested helps in managing this
problem.

Resources:

Guide to Poisonous Plants, Colorado State University
https://poisonousplants.cvmbs.colostate.edu/home
Book: A Guide to Plant Poisonings of Animals in North America, by Anthony Knight and
Richard Walter.
Booklet: Colorado’s Poisonous Menace: Do You Know What Your Horse is Eating? Produced
by the Colorado Department of Agriculture
https://ag.colorado.gov/conservation/noxious-weeds/education-and-outreach-materials

Livestock Handling

It is important for both your health and your livestock’s health that you know how to handle
them safely and with confidence. Prior to purchasing livestock is the best time to learn all
you can about your particular species such as what is a healthy animal and what care do
they need, what are their needs when it comes to nutrition, fencing and housing, and
learning how to handle and move them around your property.

Vision

Animals sense their surroundings very differently than humans due to their better hearing,
sense of smell and their wider field of vision. When handling livestock, it is important to
keep this in mind both for the comfort of the animal and their safety and yours.
Many livestock species only see in black and white, not color. Due to the placement of their
eyes on the sides of their heads, livestock have a field of vision almost twice that of
humans but only a portion of it is binocular which means they have poor depth perception.

Species	Field of vision
Humans	155–210°
Cattle	330°, 25–50° binocular
Horses	350°, 65° binocular
Sheep	270–320°
Goats	320–340°
Swine	310°, 35–50° binocular
Chickens	300°

Hearing

Most livestock have wider hearing ranges than humans. Because of their more sensitive
hearing, livestock are able to detect sounds that humans cannot hear. Loud and
unexpected noises easily frighten them. So being calm and quietly talking to and touching
them, keeps them calmer and easier to handle.

Species	Frequency or pitch
Humans	Up to 20,000 Hz
Cattle	Up to 40,000 Hz
Sheep	Up to 40,000 Hz
Swine	Up to 40,000 Hz
Chickens	Up to 7,200 Hz

Livestock like humans prefer a routine such as feeding and milking at the same time every
day. They also have their “friends” or herd (other animals that they are around each day).
Removing them from these “safe” environments or adding new elements or animals to the
farm can add stress. Most livestock are herd animals meaning that they prefer to not be
alone and to have other animals around them. Maintaining that routine and familiar
territory keeps animals happier and calmer.

Much like dealing with children, patience is a virtue when handling livestock. Reacting with
impatience or yelling when the animals are not doing what you want them to do will not
serve you well. Calmly walking and talking to them gets them to respond faster and in the
manner you want. Working with your animals routinely teaches them to know you and your
expectations and get comfortable with your handling methods. Be confident but not cocky
in how you handle them. Being able to handle them during an emergency evacuation starts
when you handle them when it’s not an emergency. Make sure family members and others
who may handle your animals know how to properly handle your livestock both prior to and
during an emergency.

Intact male animals are naturally more aggressive and should be handled with extra care.
It’s a good idea to have a separate area to handle them. Females with young are also more
protective and may respond differently or more aggressively. Take these considerations into
account when handling these animals.

Livestock have a flight zone which is their personal space and in their vision range. They are
most comfortable when they can hear and see what is in the area and will act/move to get
back into their comfort zone. For most animals their point of balance is at their shoulders. If
you are in front of the animal, it will take steps backward to a more comfortable position. If
you are in back of the animal, you trigger the animal to move forward away from you. By
positioning yourself, you can calmly move animals around without the use of a prod or loud
noises. Most animals cannot see directly behind them or right in front of their nose. They
move so that they keep you within their field of vision.

Your facilities can make handling your livestock easier. Having a rough finished concrete
floor with good drainage provides better footing for your animals. High traffic areas provide
the best footing if they have grooved concrete. While a smooth finish to a concrete floor
makes it easier to clean, it can become slippery when wet, making animals uneasy.
Lighting should be even that does not create shadows which scare animals. Fences, gates
and other structures should be built with your species in mind and be structurally sound
and not have sharp edges or other protrusions that can injure animals. Chutes and alleys
should be wide enough for animals to pass each other but not wide enough for them to be
able to turn around. Periodically inspect all structures and repair any areas that could harm
animals. Good housekeeping and cleaning provide a healthier environment.

When working with any livestock in closer quarters, be sure to have a way of escape.
Animals can change mood depending on the situation and you need to be ready to get out
of the enclosure quickly.

The main points to remember are:

Avoid quick movements and loud noises.
Be patient and act calmly.
Establish a routine.
Move slowly and deliberately around livestock; gently touch animals rather than
shoving or bumping them. Don’t shout.
Always have an escape route when working with animals in close quarters.
Most animals tend to be aggressive when protecting their young; be extra careful
around cows with newborn calves.
Males of breeding age are very dangerous. Use special facilities for them and
practice extreme caution when handling them. Never trust them or assume they
are tame.
Keep young children away from animal handling areas.
Never prod an animal when it has nowhere to go.
Respect animals-their size and bulk make them potentially dangerous.
Be cautious around animals that are frightened.

When you are handling livestock watch for the following signs that may indicate fear or
aggression in the animals:

raised or pinned (flattened) ears;
raised tail or rapidly lashing tail;
raised hair on the back;
bared teeth;
pawing the ground;
stiff-legged gate or posture;
snorting/growling.

Resources:

Livestock Handling Safety, Texas Department of Insurance
https://www.tdi.texas.gov/pubs/videoresource/stpsafelivest.pdf
Livestock Handling and Confinement Safety, Michigan State University Extension chromehttps://
afaonline.ca/uploads/files/Resources/Publications/Livestock%20Handling.pdf
Cow Handling Safety Tool, University of Wisconsin – Madison Extension
https://farms.extension.wisc.edu/forward-farm-safety-toolbox/cow-handling/
Recommended Basic Livestock Handling
https://www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/principles.html
Animal Handling Safety Considerations, University of Missouri Extension
https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/g1931

Brand Inspection

The following items are a highlighted overview of the requirements to purchase, sell or
transport livestock within Colorado, or into or out of the state. Also included are a few
pointers when purchasing livestock in other states that are transported into Colorado.
Employees of the State Board of Stock Inspection are charged with the protection of the
Colorado livestock industry. They must certify that the shipper or seller is the legal owner
prior to issuing a certificate. All lost, missing, stray or stolen livestock fall under the
jurisdiction and control of the State Board.

Things to Remember

Inspection is required for the sale or movement of livestock, even if the previous
parties did not comply the last time the animal was sold or transported.
Inspection is required regardless of whether or not the animal is branded.
Inspection is required on all classes of livestock. Registration papers, or lack of
registry, does not exempt inspection.
For the purposes of this article, the definition of a brand is a permanent mark on
the hide of an animal registered with any state as a livestock brand. (Tattoos are
not brands.)
Inspection is required at the point of origin, unless released by the local
inspector.
A health certificate may be required prior to sale or movement. Contact the
Colorado Department of Agriculture for requirements.

Regulations

Additional information regarding exact regulations can be obtained from the Division of
Brand Inspection, State Board of Stock Inspection Commissioners (Brand Board), a section
of Colorado’s Department of Agriculture.

Information About Out-of-State Livestock Purchases

When purchasing animals in states other than Colorado, be sure to check that state’s
requirements concerning inspection and movement prior to the purchase and transport of
livestock into Colorado.

Several states do not have an inspection law and, therefore, a certified inspection cannot
be obtained. Always get a valid bill of sale and a health certificate when purchasing
animals in no-inspection states. This needs to include a complete description of the
animals being purchased, including number of head, color, sex, breed, markings,
registration numbers and hot iron brands among other pertinent information.

Resources:

Livestock Inspection, Colorado Department of Agriculture
https://ag.colorado.gov/brands/livestock-inspection

Biosecurity

Preventing Disease Outbreaks on the Property

Biosecurity is defined as the measures taken to prevent disease from entering a farm and
to prevent transmission within a farm. Biosecurity maximizes livestock health and
minimizes potential for disease spread. The 3 basic tenants of biosecurity are Isolation,
Traffic Control and Sanitation. These tenants are accomplished by exclusion and
containment.

What does this mean for the small acreage livestock owner? The first step is to isolate as
much as possible your animals from wildlife and other livestock, for example your poultry
from wild birds. Wildlife, especially wild birds, can be disease carriers such as avian
influenza. By allowing your livestock to interact with wildlife or livestock owned by others,
you may be allowing disease transmission. For poultry owners, if your property attracts a lot of wild geese and ducks, do not allow your flock to use the areas where the wild birds
congregate. If you use a chicken tractor to move your flock around the property, make sure
to avoid areas where wild birds have congregated. It is also a good idea to have a roof on
your enclosure not only for biosecurity purposes but also from a predator protection point.

For poultry owners, it is best to practice an all-in/all-out management system. This means
that you start with a flock of same age birds and you do not add any new birds to the flock.
When you are ready either to sell or harvest them, the whole flock goes. You do not keep
any of them. You can then thoroughly clean and disinfect the coop and run. You then
purchase a new flock. If you do bring in new birds or take birds to shows, it is best to isolate
them for 4 weeks after returning just in case they are carrying a disease. For new birds,
try to get their care history. This way you do not run the risk of the whole flock getting sick. If
you notice that one of your birds is sick, isolate that bird so that it does not spread the
illness to other birds. Flock owners need to know what a healthy bird is and what normal
behavior is.

For all livestock owners, have separate boots and clothing that are only worn on your farm
and when you are working with your livestock. Wear different clothing and boots when
visiting other facilities. Disinfect the clothing you wore offsite when you get home before
you work with your livestock. If others visit your property, have a disinfectant foot bath or
booties at a minimum so they don’t bring disease to your property. Be aware of other
vehicles that can bring disease on your property. Do you have large quantities of feed
delivered? If so, you may want to have it delivered to an area that is separate from your
animals. Keep your coops, stables/barns, shelters and areas around them clean. Make
sure you clean and disinfect your coop and other livestock areas at least once a year, but
more is better. Rodent proofing feed storage areas helps prevent disease transmission.
Cleanup feed spills to prevent attracting rodents and wildlife. Water tanks should also be
cleaned and disinfected on a routine schedule. Having wildlife ladders in water tanks
prevents bats, birds and other wildlife from accidentally getting into water tanks and not
being able to get out.

Tools and equipment should not be shared with other livestock owners and be routinely
cleaned, disinfected and stored so that wildlife does not have access. Hand washing and
sanitizing stations should be used prior to entering livestock areas. Keep the property clean
by mowing grasses and weeds and not providing trashy areas that rodents and other
wildlife can inhabit.

When taking care of livestock, do it in order of youngest (most vulnerable} to older and from
healthiest to ill animals. This prevents disease spread to more vulnerable animals. Use
different equipment for ill animals than for healthy animals. Check your animals daily,
watch them for any different behaviors that may indicate problems. Keeping pets out of
livestock areas is also a good idea. Remove and dispose of any carcasses as soon as they
are found.

Identify a veterinarian in your area that is knowledgeable about the livestock species that
you have and is available to treat them when necessary. Your local extension agent is most
likely not a veterinarian and will not diagnose the problem with your animal over the phone.
They can help you with improving the biosecurity on your property, developing a biosecurity
plan and most likely be involved if your property is involved in a disease outbreak and may
have a list of local veterinarians.

References:

Enhance Biosecurity, USDA APHIS
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpaidetections/livestock/enhance-biosecurity
Colorado State University Extension Biosecurity website
https://extension.colostate.edu/search/?q=biosecurity&order=DESC&orderBy=relevance&
perPage=12&currentPage=1&sites=1&postType=resource-cpt

Manure Management

Manure can be an invaluable resource for soil and plant health, but it can also be a water
pollutant, produce odor, a disease source, attract flies and parasites and be a general
nuisance. Animal owners are responsible for managing manure to protect surface and
ground water and provide their animals with a safe and clean environment. Federal and
state laws forbid discharging animal waste into water. Manure has the potential to pollute
water, affecting human and aquatic health, recreation (fishing and swimming), and drinking
water. Manure contains nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorous), bacteria and
protozoa (such as E. coli and Giardia) that can negatively impact our lakes, rivers, and
groundwater (i.e. well water). High nitrogen levels in water can be toxic to fish, and can
cause blue baby syndrome in humans, livestock deaths, and other health problems in
humans or animals drinking the water. Excess phosphorus can cause algae blooms which
can lead to fish kills. In addition, manure can produce fecal coliform contamination in
water, making it potentially hazardous to fish and humans.

Mud and manure can cause abscesses, thrush, and other livestock diseases. Dried
manure produces molds that contribute to respiratory problems in horses and cattle. By
adopting simple and low-cost best management practices (BMPs) for storing, handling,
managing and utilizing manure, the environment and livestock health benefit. Lost
nutrients can contribute to water pollution. Manure nutrients can be lost through erosion,
water run-off, volatilization, and even leaching.

Manure management means having a plan for properly storing and using the manure
produced by your animals. Manure can be stockpiled, composted, spread on fields and
pastures, and/or disposed of off-site. For all these options, there are strategies which when
implemented reduces the likelihood of water pollution and pathogenic infection.

Disposal Options

Dispose off-site to a landfill or hire someone to pick up and dispose of or compost manure.
Although not the best option, check with your local waste disposal company to see if they
allow manure or can haul to their composting facility. Other ways to get rid of manure are to
market it to friends, family, coworkers, and neighbors for use in their compost pile,
pastures or landscaping.

Composting

Composting requires the correct ratio of carbon (bedding or leaves or other brown material)
and nitrogen (manure, grass clippings) for rapid decomposition. A 30:1 (C:N) ratio, water to
keep the pile moist and aerating the pile regularly promotes the quickest decomposition.
Composting manure takes additional labor and time, but it reduces the total volume by
more than half, reduces smell, and can kill weed seeds and pathogens like E.coli.
For composting to work, the proper ingredients are needed:

Mix the correct carbon:nitrogen ratio (30:1). For manure composting, this means
using by volume about 2 parts carbon (bedding, leaves, shredded paper, and
brown grass clippings) for 1-part manure or other green material (i.e. grass
clipping, manure) by volume.
Oxygen throughout the pile is required for decomposing organisms. Aeration,
getting oxygen into the pile, is created by turning the pile regularly.
The pile should be 50% moist (feels like a wrung-out sponge). This can be
achieved by watering as needed. Try using a tarp over the pile to keep moisture
contained and prevent outer layer from drying out.
Allow enough time for the material to break down. The composting process may
take much longer during cold winter temperatures and in our arid climate and if
you are not actively watering and aerating it.
Naturally occurring bacteria and microorganisms break down the material. There
is no need to add any kind of starter organism. They are naturally occurring in
soil, vegetation and manure.

Actively composting manure properly kills most E.coli and weed seeds. For a manure pile
to be composted properly, the following requirements must be met:

Mix the compost regularly. This is important not only for aeration but also to
ensure that the entire pile has reached the required temperature and time to kill
pathogens.
Monitor the temperature. Long probe thermometers are available for this
purpose. The temperature must reach 130 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit for at least
two five-day heating cycles. Mix the compost between cycles. The temperature
drops temporarily after turning but quickly heats back up. Pathogens are a
potential problem with fresh manure, especially on vegetable gardens. Homecomposted
products containing manure are best used in flower gardens, shrub
borders and other nonfood gardens. To prevent E.coli infection, always wash
your hands with soap and warm water after handling manure. Don’t use the
same tools for manure handling that you use for crop harvesting (buckets or
gloves, for example). Remove manure-contaminated clothing, including shoes
and gloves, before going into the house and especially before eating, drinking or
preparing food.
After composting the composting process is complete allow the compost to
cure for two to four months before applying it to your soil. This allows the
beneficial bacteria to kill disease-causing bacteria.

Spread manure in spring or summer when the ground is not frozen. To integrate using
manure as part of your fertilization plan, you may want to test manure for nutrient content
and spread based on soil test recommendations. Unused nutrients pollute water bodies
and groundwater. Keeping records is essential to manure application because you don’t
want to apply more nutrients than the vegetation can utilize. Keep track of when and how
much manure or compost is applied. If possible, regularly have manure or compost
analyzed for nutrient content (N, P, K, and electrical conductivity (salts)) and apply manure
at a rate that does not exceed crop nutrient requirements. Test your soil and manure at a
certified laboratory.

Never apply manure to land that is highly erodible (steep slope), frozen, or saturated.
Spread manure evenly, no more than one inch thick per year. Incorporating (mixing manure
with soil) manure immediately after application reduces nutrient losses from erosion and
volatilization. Harrowing pastures after spreading manure further breaks-up and distribute
manure for faster decomposition. The best time to spread manure is in the spring because
nutrients are quickly utilized by plants at this time of year.

If your manure is mostly wood shavings (more than the 30:1 ratio), consider composting it
first before land application. The shavings as a carbon source may tie up too much of your
soil’s nitrogen during decomposition. Grasses do not have access to all the soil nitrogen
during decomposition. Don’t apply fresh manure to your fruit or vegetable garden. Even
aged manure can have E.coli present. Additionally, fresh manure is higher in salts and
nitrogen that can damage crops. This is another reason to let your manure compost and
cure before use.

Stockpiling Manure

Stockpile manure at least 150 feet away from surface water (ponds, wetlands, streams),
wells, and gardens preferably not on a slope. Reroute rainwater (including roof water) or
snowmelt away from manure stockpiles. Build an earthen berm or diversion and use
gutters and downspouts to divert clean water away from manure piles. If manure has
historically been stored near a well head or other human or livestock drinking water source,
your drinking water should be tested for nitrates, heavy metals, and fecal coliform by a
certified laboratory. Manure storage must be moved away from human and livestock
drinking water sources.

Manure Management Strategies

Keep animals out of surface water bodies. While animals are drinking or walking
through water bodies, they often leave manure behind. Manure nutrients can kill
fish, cause algae blooms, and spread bacteria to our drinking water. Use
temporary or permanent fence to prevent or limit livestock access to surface
waters. Install water tanks so animals don’t have to drink from surface water.
Manure management on pastures depends on getting good manure distribution
across the pasture. Rotational grazing is an excellent way to achieve good
manure distribution. Moving mineral blocks, supplemental feeding and watering
facilities often encourages better manure distribution. Use a harrow to break up
and spread manure in pastures.
Be aware that manure tends to be high in salts, when applied at excessive rates
it can contribute to soil salinity. Soil salinity causes plants to become water
stressed. When manure is applied to pastures, salts can accumulate on the soil
surface unless they are leached into the subsoil. Salt accumulation is most
common with clay-based soils with limited irrigation and rainfall.
Plant shrubs and trees to reduce wind and odor near stockpiles. Stockpile
manure downwind from barns and 200 feet from your neighbors. Control
insects. Raw manure and mud provide a breeding ground for flies. Remove
manure and soiled bedding from barns, shelters and corrals on a regular basis.
Composting at proper temperatures inhibits fly development. Use fly predatory
wasps or one of the several pesticides labeled for use on manure piles to kill
maggots.
Be aware that if animals eat forage which was treated with herbicides containing
aminopyralid, clopyralid, or picloram, the herbicide can carry over in manure
and composted manure. This becomes a problem when the manure or
composted manure is used on vegetable gardens. If you purchase forage,
compost, or manure, be sure to ask what herbicides were used on the field.

References:

Choosing a Soil Amendment, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/yard-garden/choosing-a-soil-amendment/
CSU Soil, Water, Plant Testing Lab Website
https://agsci.colostate.edu/soiltestinglab/
“Contaminated Organic Material Kills Sensitive Vegetables”, Front Range Sustainable Small
Acreage News
https://sam.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2016/07/11-summer.pdf
Manure Management Guidelines, CSU Fact Sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/manure-management-guidelines/
Anaerobic Digestion of Animal Wastes: Factors to Consider, National Center for
Appropriate Technology ATTRA Resources
https://www.ncat.org/publication/anaerobic-digestion-animal-wastes/
Soil and Water, National Center for Appropriate Technology ATTRA Resources
https://www.ncat.org/topic/soil-and-water/
Composting Horse Manure for Environmental and Economic Benefits, LSU Ag Center
https://www.lsuagcenter.com/topics/livestock/horses/educational%20resources/water_q
uality/compostinghorsemanureforenvironmentalandeconimicbenefits

Livestock and Adverse Weather

Helping your livestock survive and thrive in winter weather starts with planning. Key
considerations are providing them with feed (livestock have increased nutritional needs in
colder weather and getting feed to the livestock may be challenging), shelter, water, and
your choice of species and breed. Livestock with more hair stay warmer than those with
minimal hair (i.e. beef cattle versus dairy cattle). Consider breeds that originate from colder
climates rather than tropical areas. Purchase your animals locally so that they are adjusted
to our climate and elevation. For poultry, choose those that have smaller combs and
wattles to prevent freezing. You may want to insulate their coop and keep a light on for heat
on those subzero nights.

Most livestock species are designed to live outside and survive most weather conditions.
The Lowest Critical Environmental Temperature (LCT) is the temperature at which animals
can maintain their main core body temperature without supplemental energy (feed). For
most livestock, if they are dry, the LCT is 20 to 32 degrees Fahrenheit. However, if they get
wet, it goes up to 60-degree Fahrenheit. Both temperatures are without a wind chill factor.
For every 20 degrees Fahrenheit drop-in wind-chill temperature, livestock energy (feed)
requirements go up 1%.

To help your livestock maintain good body condition in adverse weather, you need to do
several things.

Monitor your livestock for excessive shivering, lethargy and weakness. As
animals begin to experience hypothermia, they increase their metabolism to
generate more heat. Blood flow to the extremities is reduced. Ears, combs and
teats may experience frostbite.
Rapid warming of the teats is needed to minimize damage and monitoring for
mastitis is required after calving. Some frostbite damage may not be reversible.
Provide them with plenty of forage to meet their added calorie requirement.
Have your hay tested so that you know the nutritional value. Providing good, topquality
hay is essential during the winter months. For horses, you can provide
some “comfort” food such as warm bran mash, moistened beet pulp or soaked
pelleted feed to increase water intake and provide some warmth. You may need
to increase the feed amount and the “nutrient density” (feeding alfalfa in
addition to grass hay, be careful doing this with ruminants so that you don’t
cause bloat). More nutritionally dense (packed with nutrients) grains may need
to be added to the diet.
Water is critical to all living beings. Livestock daily water requirements range
from 3 gallons per day for sheep to 14 gallons per day or more for cattle. They
cannot meet their requirements from either forage or consuming snow or ice.
Consuming snow or ice lowers body temperature making them more vulnerable
to problems. They need fresh, unfrozen and, if possible, slightly warmed water.
They tend to drink less when water is cold, so they can become dehydrated. You
can use tank heaters to help keep stock tanks clear of ice and water slightly
warmed (35 – 40 degrees Fahrenheit). However, you need to check the heaters
frequently to prevent fire and electrocution problems. Have a backup generator
in the event power fails.
Young and older animals are especially vulnerable during the cold. Providing
them extra bedding, protection, and warm food and water is important. If you are
lambing or calving during the cold, make sure that the mothers are in a wellprotected
building or area with plenty of bedding for warmth. Make sure that the
young get dried off quickly after birth.

Most livestock don’t need a fully insulated, state-of-the-art, heated barn. In many cases, a
roofed three-sided structure, a hill, clumps of trees, or a solid fence provides enough
protection from cold winter winds. Reducing winter wind exposure is a must so orient the
building based on your winter prevailing winds. The structure, or area, must have plenty of
dry bedding. Livestock can conserve 20 to 25% heat loss by lying down on dry bedding.

The shelter needs to be sized to handle all the livestock that will be using it. Please refer to
the Oregon State document link for square footage needed for each species. Wet, muddy,
or no bedding can increase their vulnerability to cold temperatures. During a snowstorm or
cold spring rain, a structure that provides not only wind protection but a roof to keep them
dry is needed. Remember that the LCT jumps drastically as they get wet. Protection desired
varies by species. Sheep don’t mind getting wet, but goats do so they seek shelter rather
than graze in the open. Dairy cattle chill quicker than beef cattle since they tend to have
less hair to insulate them. The coat condition is critical to providing insulation. The more
hair the better as it allows for air space between the hairs to act as insulation. When hair is
wet or muddy, it becomes matted, limiting the insulating air spaces available. Manage mud
in your dry lot area and provide drier areas with bedding so animals can stay dry. Check
your livestock going into the fall not only for general health and body condition but also for
skin and hair health.

Deep Snow and Drifts

When storing hay, consider how you get it to your livestock in winter. You don’t want to lug
50–80 pound bales through 1 foot or more snow. You may want to store several days’ worth
in the stable or barn or wherever your livestock are kept during major winter storms.
Consider how you get from your house to the barn in case of a large snow fall or snow drifts.
Consider a windbreak or fence that provides a path to the livestock. Also, consider a fence
or windbreak around their shelter and water tanks. If you can, build feedlots, shelters and
other buildings on south facing slopes and other protected areas where temperatures are
higher, and snow depth is lower or melts off quicker. If your livestock is a considerable
distance from the house, have equipment ready to plow a path to the area and for the
livestock to be able to move around. With deep snow, fencing may be covered so that
animals can walk over or through it. Keep your fencing in good condition and check for
areas that might allow animals to escape.

Livestock can survive several days without feed but must have access to water. When
reintroducing food, provide livestock smaller portions several times a day. There can be
some potential for nitrate poisoning if your feed is high in nitrates and your livestock has not
been fed for several days. It is always a good idea to have your hay tested but especially for
winter feed. Make sure that they have enough salt and mineral blocks.

References:

Living on the Land: Winter Livestock Care
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/extd8/files/documents/ec1635.pdf

Management and Feeding Horses in Cold Weather
https://www.ontario.ca/page/management-and-feeding-horses-cold-weather

Winter Animal Care, Michigan State University Extension
https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/winter_animal_care

Livestock Species Information

The following pages are provided to provide a sample of the considerations for raising
domestic livestock that are common in our area. For further information, consult your local
Extension Specialist or visit one of the web resources that follow. Events like the National
Western Stock Show or your local county fair provide opportunities to talk with livestock
owners. With any species, learn how they look and act when they are healthy, handling and
plan for dealing with sick animals and disasters and emergencies.

References:

Colorado State University Extension
https://extension.colostate.edu/

CDC Healthy Pet Resources
https://search.cdc.gov/search/?query=healthy%20pets&dpage=1

Utah State University Extension
https://extension.usu.edu/agriculture-and-natural-resources/

Beef Cattle

Cattle can be ideal for the small acreage landowner and nationally the average herd size is
25 cows. Cattle can be a great tool to help manage a small-acreage ecosystem. Forage
plants especially grasses are designed to be in relationship with a foraging animal in order
to be healthy.

Two basic beef cattle operations are cow/calf and weanling/yearling enterprises. Cow/calf
enterprises operate year-round, with calves as the primary product. Weanling/yearling
enterprises purchase weaned calves or yearlings and graze them only for summer gain or
feed them out for meat. While these are the two typical commercial systems for beef
production, we now are seeing more and more small acreage landowners totally integrated
who are producing calves and raising them for their own freezer or a local market. These
cow/calf enterprises can be commercial or registered. Registered cow/calf enterprises
produce breeding stock; commercial cow/calf enterprises produce calves for meat
production.

There are now smaller breeds of conventional breeds (i.e. miniature Herefords or Angus).
These smaller cattle breeds may be more appropriate for small acreages. They produce
less meat which may be better suited to smaller families. The smaller breeds require one
third less feed than standard size breeds. Another bovine relative, the yak, has found
popularity on small acreages. They produce meat, fiber and milk (mostly used for cheese).
Take advantage of events such as the National Western Stock Show to speak to breeders of
various breeds prior to purchasing any cattle.

Shelter

Cattle do not require an enclosed barn. A covered 3-sided shed is enough in most areas if
properly situated. Site the shed so that animals are protected from prevailing winds and
snow drifts. The shed should have plenty of good insulating bedding material that is clean
and dry. Periodically clean the bedding out and replace it with clean dry bedding.

Fencing

Cattle can be kept in a pasture using several different kinds of fencing. Highly visible wire
fencing either multiple strand or net wire at least 50 inches in height will keep cattle
confined. Wood fences can be used but are more expensive. Electric fence, once the cattle
are trained to respect it (they get shocked a time or two) may be the easiest to install but
does require maintenance. Spacing between the wires or boards should be small enough
so that cattle do not try to put their head through and graze. Make sure that all wire ends,
nails and other sharp objects are protected so that the cattle do not injure themselves.

Feed

Beef cattle may drink 3-30 gallons per day (basically 1 gallon per day per 100 pounds of
body weight in cold temperatures and 2 gallons per day per 100 pounds of body weight in
hot temperatures). They require 2-3% of their body weight in forage daily. Beef cattle do fine
on grass pastures and grass hay. Hay should be tested to make sure nutrition needs are
being met. Limit the amount of alfalfa to prevent bloat or have a non-bloating legume in
your pasture or hay.

Beef Cattle Products

There is no one breed that is best! Instead of selecting a breed, beef cattle producers
should select a biological type that is compatible with their property, production and
marketing goals. Because of their ability to take low quality resources and transform them
into high quality protein products, cattle are a great value to our food system. The typical
beef animal spends 11 to 12 months of its life grazing grassland and then 3 to 4 months on
a high energy grain diet finishing before slaughter. This high energy diet efficiently increases
the tenderness and flavor of the final beef product. Another product gaining popularity is
grass-fed beef. In a grass-fed operation cattle forgo the high energy diet and continue a
forage-based diet for an additional 8 to 10 months before slaughter.

Cattle performance and land carrying capacity are related to, and affected by, forage
production and quality. Feed cost directly impacts profitability. It is extremely important
that producers evaluate the cow herd’s nutritional needs versus available forage resources.
Carrying capacity and cattle performance are not easy to predict and change from month
to month.

References:

College of Agricultural Sciences Website, Colorado State University
https://agsci.colostate.edu/ansci/research/beef-management-systems/
Livestock & Animals, CSU Extension Resources
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Merck Veterinary Manual
https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/nutrition-beefcattle/
nutrient-requirements-of-beef-cattle
Beef Cattle Nutrition Resources, University of Nebraska
https://beef.unl.edu/taxonomy/term/634/
Beef Cattle Resources, Oregon State University Extension
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/beef
Nitrate Poisoning, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/nitrate-poisoning/
Bovine Pinkeye, College of Veterinary Medicine Washington State University
https://hospital.vetmed.wsu.edu/2026/06/10/bovine-pinkeye-infectious-bovinekeratoconjunctivitis/
Bovine Respiratory Disease: Preconditioning Calves, CSU Extension
https://www.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/08023.pdf
Prussic Acid Poisoning, South Dakota State University Extension
https://extension.sdstate.edu/prussic-acid-poisoning
Alternative Feeds for Cattle During Drought, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://www.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01626.pdf
Feed Composition for Cattle and Sheep, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://jeffco.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01615.pdf
Formulating Rations with the Pearson Square, CSU Extension Fact Sheet #1.618
https://nydairyadmin.cce.cornell.edu/uploads/doc_728.pdf
Beef Topics, Utah State University

Dairy Cattle

While most small acreage landowners are more likely to have beef cattle some landowners
want a dairy cow for the milk. Dairy cattle require better housing (due to less hair) and
higher nutritional needs than beef cattle as they are either pregnant or lactating. They also
need to be bred periodically to continue to produce milk. You need to be prepared to sell
the calf or use the calf for veal or beef, or a replacement heifer depending on its sex. Most
people are familiar with the Holstein breed but might want to consider Brown Swiss, Jersey
or Guernsey breeds as they tend to be a smaller animal and produce milk with higher butter
fat which may be more desirable depending on what you will be doing with the milk. Higher
butter fat milk is ideal for cheese making. There are now miniature dairy cattle breeds that
may make more sense for a small acreage.
If you want the cow so that you can utilize the milk without processing (raw milk), make
sure that you know and understand the risks involved with raw milk and all the steps you
can take to protect you and your family from food borne illnesses.

Shelter

Dairy cattle prefer a more enclosed shelter or barn due to less hair. Providing them with
plenty of clean, dry bedding is essential for their health.

Fencing

Dairy cattle can be kept in a pasture using several different kinds of fencing. Highly visible
wire fencing either multiple strand or net wire at least 50 inches in height keeps cattle
confined. Wood fences can also be used but are more expensive. Electric fence once the
cattle are trained to respect it (they get shocked a time or two) may be the easiest to install
but does require maintenance. Spacing between the wires or boards should be small
enough so that cattle will not try to put their head through and graze. Make sure that all wire
ends, nails and other sharp objects are protected so that the cattle will not injure
themselves.

Nutrition

Dairy cattle drink 30-50 gallons per on the higher end when it’s hot. Dairy cattle require a
higher quality and nutritious diet to produce milk than beef cattle. A higher protein diet is
required to maintain the cow’s health and milk production. They require 2-3% of their body
weight per day in feed. This can consist of grass and alfalfa hay along with grain to achieve
the higher protein level they required.

References

Dairy Nutrition and Feeding
https://extension.psu.edu/animals-and-livestock/dairy/nutrition-and-feeding

CSU Extension Livestock & Animals
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/

Real Raw Milk Facts
https://realrawmilkfacts.com/

Horses

Many landowners buy their small acreages solely based on the ability to own a horse.
However, owning and caring properly for a horse is a large and expensive responsibility.
Careful thought and consideration should always be taken before purchasing a horse. The
average cost in the United States to maintain a horse is $3.17 per day ($1,200.00 per year).
This includes feed and veterinary services. Feed will cost a minimum of $400.00 per year
depending on hay prices. If you include facilities, tack, transportation, depreciation and
interest, then the average cost is $6.75 per day ($2,500.00 per year). If you plan to show or
hire a professional trainer, additional funds are needed. Your initial investment may be the
cheapest part of owning a horse.

Facilities and Fencing

A two or three-sided wind shelter with a roof and plenty of dry bedding may be adequate,
even in cold climates. You may opt for an enclosed barn with box stalls (at least 12 feet by
12 feet), a tack room and a feed room or hay storage area. Several fencing materials are
suitable for horses including poles, rails, or boards for smaller areas, such as paddocks.
For pasture areas consider using smooth wire, woven wire, or electric fencing. Avoid
barbed wire or large opening woven wire. The fence should be 5 feet tall and easily visible to
the horse. Electric fencing is economical and convenient, especially for dividing irrigated
pastures.

Feeding

The average horse in good physical condition consumes from 1.5-4 % of its body weight in
air dry feed per day depending on activity level. For example, a 1,000-pound horse can
consume 15 to 40 pounds of feed per day. Most light work horses get along nicely on good
quality grass. Other supplements or higher quality grass and alfalfa hay are usually not
necessary, except for pregnant and lactating mares, young horses (aged two years or less),
hardworking, and geriatric horses. As with all livestock, having access to clean, not frozen
water is critical to horses’ health.

Buying a Horse

When buying a horse, first you must decide what you want. First-time buyers should look at
purchasing a four-year-old, or older, well broke, started, or trained gelding or mare. For
pleasure and leisure riding, avoid ponies, which are horses less than 14 hands tall, and
avoid draft breeds. Common breeds to ride found in Colorado are Arabian, Appaloosa,
Morgan, Paint, Pinto, Quarter Horse and Thoroughbred. However, a grade horse (not
registered) may also fit your needs. Purchase your horse from a reputable breeder or
trainer. Ask many questions and then some, because very few horses come with a
guarantee. Also, once a horse is brought home and placed in a different environment, its
behavior can change.

Basic First Aid and Emergencies

There are many types of emergencies that horse owners can experience. Anything from
heat stroke to bone fractures to snake bites to foaling difficulties to colic and puncture
wounds can happen without warning. Regardless of any situation, here are a few points to
remember:

Keep the horse and yourself as calm as possible.
Move the animal to a safe area where it is unlikely to get injured should it go
down.
Get someone to help you and then delegate responsibilities, such as calling the
Veterinarian, retrieving the first aid kit, holding the horse, etc.
Notify the Veterinarian immediately if the situation warrants.
Listen closely and follow your equine practitioner’s instructions.
Do not administer drugs, especially tranquilizers or sedatives, unless specifically
instructed to do so by the Veterinarian.

Resources

CSU Extension Livestock & Animals
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/

Oregon State Horse Resources
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/horses

Rabies in Horses
https://jeffco.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01819.pdf

Stretching Your Horse’s Hay Supply During Drought
https://www.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01625.pdf

Poultry

Chickens, Ducks, Geese and Turkeys

Managing a home poultry flock can be rewarding and the entire family can participate in
flock care. Successful management begins with planning. For that reason, you need to
make several decisions before you start your flock including the desired flock size and do
you want the birds for meat or eggs. How many eggs a day you wish to have along with any
municipal, homeowner’s association or county regulations determine the number of birds.
Most chicken breeds produce around 200 eggs per year while ducks produce between 50
to 300 eggs per year depending on the breed and geese produce 20 to 100 eggs per year
depending on breed. Geese are primarily spring layers and are affected more by seasonal
changes than chickens. If you are a baker, you might want to consider raising a few ducks
as they have larger yolks making them more desirable for baking. Typically, a chicken lays
one egg every 26 hours during the longer days and are less consistent during the winter
months. If a family wishes to have three to four eggs per day, then they would need six
hens. If you wish to sell eggs, you need additional hens. You do not need to have a rooster
unless you want to have fertilized eggs. Chickens egg production peaks the first 2 -3 years
and declines after that. At that time, a decision needs to be made whether to keep birds
past their laying prime or to sell or slaughter them.

Ducks take naps throughout the day rather than sleeping through the night. They can be
quite noisy anytime of the day or night. Placing a light in the coop can help keep them
quieter and making neighbors happier.

Fencing, Facilities and Feed

Housing is one of the most important factors in proper poultry care. Poultry houses, runs,
and yards are as diverse as the people who raise them.

Some considerations should include: is there proper ventilation and shelter from harsh
elements and predators; is there plenty of room for feed, water, nesting boxes, and roosts,
is there easy access to the coop for cleaning and disinfecting. Construction and fencing
should be carefully designed and chosen to prevent predators such as skunks, raccoons,
foxes, hawks, owls, and the neighbor’s dogs from accessing your birds. Coops must have
solid floors (concrete is ideal as it can be disinfected) and the fencing around covered runs
should be buried at least 12 inches in the ground. Coops must be kept clean and
disinfected and proper ventilation is a must for your coop. During the winter months, coops
can be insulated from wind and cold. Make sure birds cannot get access to insulation and
protect wiring by placing it out of reach or place it in conduit. Heat lights and heated water
can be used to add extra warmth for extremely cold days.

Each average size laying hen requires 2 to 3 square feet of coop floor space and 10 square
feet in the run. Ducks require 4-6 square feet, geese need 3-5 square feet and turkeys 3-5
square feet per bird interior space. Ducks and geese thrive and are healthier with a pond,
the more pond surface area the better. Ducks and geese require water to clean their bills,
eyes and nostrils. The pond helps keep them cleaner, increase egg fertility, survive extreme
temperatures, evade predators and a place to play and burn off energy. If you don’t have a
pond and want to use a tank, you need to use one that has hard sides. Do not try to use a
children’s swimming pool. You need to periodically clean the pool out so that it doesn’t
smell and to prevent disease. Depending on the tank size if you use one instead of a pond,
you may also want to add ramp into the tank and one in the tank so that the birds and other
wildlife, i.e. bats, can get out of the tank. You need 6-9 square feet of surface water per
duck. If you have an outside run, it should be twice as big as the coop. Covered protective
runs are great when owners cannot keep a watchful eye over their birds.

Nesting Boxes and Roosts

You need 1 nesting box per 3-5 birds for chickens. Nesting boxes need to be a little over 1
square foot for chickens, 2 ¼ square feet for ducks and 4 square feet for geese and turkeys.
Nesting boxes for ducks, geese and turkeys can be on the ground where chicken roosting
boxes need to be above ground level (18 to 20 inches). Roosts should allow 12 inches per
chicken and be higher than the nesting boxes. Roosts for turkeys should be 18 to 24 inches
off the ground. In the wild, turkeys roost in trees.

Feed

One chicken eats 6 to 10 pounds of feed per month, a duck 10-16 pounds per month, a
goose 15-25 pounds per month and a turkey 20-30 pounds per month. Feed and water
should be raised off the ground, filled and cleaned and disinfected daily. Complete feeds
can be purchased and provide complete nutritional requirements. Raising your own feed
requires testing to determine nutritional value of each component and takes more time to
process and mix correctly to provide complete nutrition.

Eggs

Be sure to collect eggs at least twice daily (three times is better, twice in the morning and
once in late afternoon) to prevent dirty, broken, or frozen eggs. Plastic coated wire baskets
or plastic egg cartons are best for collecting eggs. You need to clean and disinfect the
collection baskets just as you clean and disinfect cartons. Discard any eggs that are
cracked or broken. Despite all your efforts, you will still get some dirty eggs. When you are
collecting eggs, the dirty eggs should be placed in a separate container so that you don’t
contaminate the clean eggs. You can clean all the eggs at day’s end. You don’t have to
wash all the eggs; you can remove some dirt and debris with an emery cloth, fine
sandpaper or a brush. Clean eggs do not have to be washed.

Although they appear solid, eggshells have minute holes in them to allow air to enter the
egg. This affects how you should wash your eggs. When washing eggs, it is best to use
water between 110 degrees Fahrenheit and 120 degrees Fahrenheit or at least 20 degrees
Fahrenheit warmer than the eggs. The principle behind this is to get the egg contents to
expand preventing contaminants/pathogens from entering the eggs. Using cooler water
shrinks the contents creating a vacuum that then allows contaminants/pathogens to enter
the holes in the eggshell. Eggs should be washed individually using water and non-foaming,
unscented detergent and then rinsed in clean water. Make sure you use an unscented
detergent as the scented detergent may give the eggs an off taste. If you have a larger flock,
the washing solution should be cleaned every 3 to 4 dozen eggs. Eggs should never be
soaked in the water. To make a sanitizing solution for use after washing, mix 1 gallon of 120
degrees Fahrenheit water with 1 ounce (1 tablespoon) of bleach. Either dip or spray the
eggs with the sanitizing solution. After cleaning and sanitizing the eggs, dry the eggs
thoroughly on a rack and refrigerate them. Any containers that you use to store the eggs
should be either new or one that can be thoroughly disinfected (i.e. plastic re-usable egg
cartons that can be put in a dishwasher). Re-using store bought fiber containers is not a
good idea. Eggs should be stored in the main area of the refrigerator not in the door. The
main part of the refrigerator should be 35 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit while the door can be
warmer. Eggs stored properly can have a safe shelf life of 3 weeks. Make sure that you date
the container so that you use older eggs first. If your birds are producing more eggs than
you can use, you can freeze them. Only freeze fresh eggs. Break the eggs out of their shells,
beat them adding a small amount of salt, sugar or corn syrup to preserve quality and
prevent gelling. Place them in containers dating them and noting the number of eggs. You
can also freeze whites and yolk separately.

Caring for Baby Birds (chicks, ducklings, poults)

Purchase birds from a commercial hatchery or reputable breeder. Birds from these sources
are generally free of disease and vaccinated for Marek’s disease. Raising your own birds is
not that difficult, but you need a rooster and additional equipment: heat lamp, chick
waterer, chick feeder and a protective area (livestock troughs work well).

References:

Swine

Contrary to the stereotype, pigs are the cleanest and smartest of all farm animals. They
require little space and can produce an average of 150 pounds of pork products in five to
six months. They can however grow quite large and while a finished market hog may only
weigh 250 pounds, a two-year-old sow can weigh 500 pounds. Most pigs are cross-breeds
for improved genetics. Hampshire, Berkshire, Duroc and Landrace are meat breeds;
Yorkshires are known for their maternal traits. Buy at least two pigs of similar age and
weight at a time to keep each other company, preferably from a single source. Pigs are
weaned at about four weeks of age; sold at six to eight weeks; and weigh 20 to 30 pounds at
six weeks; and 30 to 40 pounds at eight weeks. Piglets should be eating dry food on their
own at six weeks.

There are 3 different types of swine operations: farrow (birth) to finish (slaughter), farrow to
feeder and feeder to finish. For most small acreage owners, the feeder to finish may be the
best option as it requires the least time and equipment.

Fencing, Facilities and Feed

Simple housing is enough if pigs are purchased in spring and are butchered prior to winter.
However, build a good solid fence, or use electric fence as they may try to escape. Once
trained, pigs respect the wire. Electric fence is portable; however, it may be a problem for
young pigs, because the wire must be low to the ground. Two strands are necessary for
young pigs. The bottom wire should be placed a bit lower than snout height; the top wire
placed a bit lower than the pigs’ height. Adjust the wire height as needed to accommodate
the piglets’ rapid growth. Fences must be four feet high. A 200-pound pig can scale a lower
fence. For young pigs, space wires or boards four inches apart or less. Pigs root, so bottom
boards or wire must be buried six inches deep to prevent rooting under the fence. They are
very intelligent and take advantage of any flaw in the fencing. Pigs need shade to prevent
overheating and sunburn. This is why they cover themselves in mud, it’s their sunscreen.
Elaborate structures are not needed, but dependable shade is a requirement. Pigs require
1.5-2 feet of feeding space per animal. Use a non-tipping feeder, since pigs love to turn
their dishes over. Self-feeders and self-waterers designed for pigs are commercially
available and offer constant supplies of food and water.

Feed

Pigs need a balanced diet, much like humans, including proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
mineral salts, vitamins, and water. Most commercial pig feeds are “complete” feeds,
containing all the nutrients needed. Two pigs grow faster and more economically than one.
From weaning to processing weight, you will need 600 to 1,500 pounds of commercial feed
per animal. They require 1-3 gallons of water per day.

References:

Livestock & Animals, CSU Extension Resources
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/
Swine, Oregon State University Extension
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/swine
About Influenza in Swine, CDC Swine/Variant Influenza
https://www.cdc.gov/swine-flu/about/influenza-in-swine.html

Sheep

Sheep production is popular in Colorado (Colorado is #1 in lamb production in the United
States). Sheep are well-suited to this area and can provide two crops: lamb (meat) and
wool. First determine the carrying capacity of your acreage; then determine your market
goals. Market options include freezer lambs, breeding stock, weaned lambs or wool. The
desired marketing option determines the breed or breeds you select. If wool production is
your goal, choose a fine wool breed, such as Rambouillet or Merino. These breeds are
rugged, adaptable, have a long breeding season and excellent herding instincts, and are
long-lived; but they do not produce a heavily muscled carcass. If your goal is both wool and
meat, select a medium wool breed, such as Columbia, Targhee or Polypay. Medium wool
breed lambs grow faster and have better body conformation, as well as good herding
instincts; however, they require more feed and have a shorter breeding season than fine
wool breeds. Meat breeds were developed primarily for lamb production and populate
many farm flocks. Suffolk and Hampshire are the most popular meat breeds.

Fencing and Facilities

Sheep need protection during wet and cold weather, and ewes and lambs need a dry, draftfree
shelter for lambing. A shed or barn with a dirt floor that opens to the south makes a
good sheep shelter. If you have a problem with predators, you need to provide a more
substantial shelter so you can secure your animals at night. Provide the best fences you
can for your sheep to reduce predation by coyotes and dogs. Many different material types
can be used for sheep fencing. Barbed wire is not effective. A 4-foot woven wire fence is
good just make sure they can’t put their head through the wires or a 5-7 high tensile strand
wire fences with 2 strands of electric wires works well. Predator control animals can be
utilized effectively; however careful consideration must be made before purchasing a
predator control animal. Determine which species is best for your situation. Guard dogs
can be a great tool in large pastures however; they can be a threat to neighbors. Llamas
and donkeys are also good predator control animals if they aren’t a nuisance to neighbors
or visitors. When using any guard animal, the herd and the guard animal need to bond for
the guard animal to be effective. Sheep take less labor than other livestock and do well with
low-cost housing and equipment.

Feeding

Sheep can generally meet their nutrient requirements by utilizing high-quality pasture. They
require 2-3% of their body weight in forage per day. During the winter, an ewe can be
maintained on three to three and one-half pounds of good-quality hay daily. During the last
six weeks of pregnancy, additional nutrients are required.

References:

Livestock & Animals, CSU Extension Resources
https://extension.colostate.edu/topics/livestock-and-animals/
Sheep and Goats, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/sheep-and-goats/
Sheep and Goat Resources, Oregon State University Extension
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/sheep-goats
Sheep Production & Management, New Mexico State University
https://aces-newmexicosheep.nmsu.edu/index.html
Sheep Production Handbook, Premier 1
https://www.premier1supplies.com/p/sid-sheep-production-handbook
Nitrate Poisoning, CSU Extension Fact sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/nitrate-poisoning/
Prussic Acid Poisoning, South Dakota State University Extension
https://extension.sdstate.edu/prussic-acid-poisoning
Enterotoxemia in Sheep and Goats, University of Georgia
https://vet.uga.edu/enterotoxemia-in-sheep-and-goats/
Internal Parasites in Sheep and Goats, Oregon State University
https://smallfarms.oregonstate.edu/sites/agscid7/files/em9055.pdf
Market Lamb Project Guide: Nutrition, Mississippi State University Extension
https://extension.msstate.edu/sites/default/files/publications/P2478.pdf
Pregnancy Toxemia (Ketosis) in Ewes and Does, The Ohio State University
https://u.osu.edu/sheep/2021/01/12/pregnancy-toxemia-ketosis-in-ewes-and-does/
About Q Fever, CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/q-fever/about/index.html
Feed Composition for Cattle and Sheep, CSU Extension Fact sheet
https://jeffco.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01615.pdf
Formulating Rations with the Pearson Square, CSU Extension Fact Sheet
https://nydairyadmin.cce.cornell.edu/uploads/doc_728.pdf
Glossary of Wool and Fiber Terms, CSU Extension Fact sheet
https://extension.colostate.edu/resource/glossary-of-wool-and-fiber-terms/
Grades and Lengths of Grease Wool, CSU Extension Fact sheet
https://jeffco.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/livestk/01401.pdf
Management of Sheep and Goats Through Drought, The Ohio State University
https://u.osu.edu/sheep/2024/10/22/management-of-sheep-and-goats-through-drought/

Goats

Increasingly goats are finding homes on small acreages as well as in some urban
backyards. Goats’ popularity is due to their size and ability to utilize very low-quality browse
and weeds. In fact, many weed control districts are using them as weed management
tools. There are three types of goats found in the United States: fiber, dairy, and meat goats.
The key management issues for a successful goat enterprise are fencing, parasite and
predator control and marketing.

Types of Goats

Meat goats fit in well with other enterprises, particularly cattle operations, and may be used
to help manage noxious weeds and brush to improve pastures for other livestock. The
increasing economic importance of meat goat production in the United States can be
attributed both to a strong ethnic demand for goat meat, and to an interest in ecologicallysound
forms of vegetation management. Meat goats can be raised with very little
supplemental grain, and with minimal shelter, and are generally an easy-care animal. Meat
goat breeds are Spanish, Boer, Kiko, Mytonic (fainting), Savanna(h) and Texmaster.

Dairy goats fit well into operations where milk is the desired product. Dairy breeds are
Alpine, Guernsey, LaMancha, Oberhasli, Sable, Nigerian dwarf, Nubian, Saanen and
Toggenburg. If milk production is important, feed maximum amounts of high-quality hay
balanced with a grain ration containing enough protein, minerals and vitamins to support
production and animal health. Local producers have found favor with locally produced
artisan cheese producers and people with lactose intolerance find goat’s milk a great
alternative to cow’s milk. Like dairy cows, dairy goats must be bred periodically to continue
producing and the kid must be dealt with either kept as a replacement, sold or slaughtered.
If you want goats so that you can utilize the milk without processing (raw milk), make sure
that you know and understand the risks involved with raw milk and all the steps you can
take to protect you and your family from foodborne illnesses.

Fiber goats (Cashmere and Angora) are also popular in Colorado. Cashmere goats produce
a very fine down undercoat that can be brushed out and is extremely soft. Angoras produce
Mohair, a product that can be shorn twice a year and is more durable, warmer and less
inclined to shrink than sheep wool. Check in your area for a wool cooperative if you plan to
sell the wool.
Two other goat types are packing and weed management. Packing goats are used to pack
supplies for backpacking trips and are breeds such as Alpine, Toggenburg, Saanen,
LaMancha and Oberhasli. Extra time is required to train the goats to be pack animals. Since

they are foragers, finding food along the trail is not difficult. There aren’t specific breeds
identified for weed management. Many municipalities use goats to graze weeds located in
areas that are not accessible to equipment or unsafe for personnel to spray. The goats are
only another tool in the weed management toolbox.

Fencing, Facilities and Feed

Housing needs for goats are very simple and, in moderate climates, may consist of natural
cover, such as thick trees and brush, or rock ledges. Goats do, however, need protection
from rain (they don’t like to be in the rain), cold wind and snow. A sturdy shed open to the
south or opposite prevailing winds, with a rear eave height of four to six feet and a front
eave height of six to eight feet with enough dry, clean bedding helps conserve body heat.
For night shelter, allow five square feet per goat. If predators are a problem in your area, you
need to provide a more substantial structure so you can secure your animals in a barn at
night. You can try using a guard animal like you would for sheep.

Goats have a propensity to try to escape fences. A sturdy 48-inch woven wire fence (make
sure they can’t get their heads stuck in the openings) with or without a strand of electric
wire at the top should work. Providing them with play items to jump on and over can help
keep them entertained and inside the fence.

They need 2-3% of their body weight in feed per day. Commercial goat feeds are available
and provide a fully balanced diet. Goats are browsers rather than grazers meaning that they
prefer broadleaf plants over grasses. Pastures need to be a mix of both grasses and forbs to
provide a balanced diet. Be aware of potentially poisonous plants in the pasture and deal
with those before allowing animals to graze.

References:

Llamas and Alpacas

Llamas and alpacas are easy to keep, lower maintenance animals. They have become
popular for pack animals (llamas) and for their wool (alpacas). They are herd animals, so
you need at least two to keep them happy and healthy. They require minimal care and can
do well on native rangeland plants. All members of the camelid family use a specific
location for their manure deposition which make manure cleanup easier. As with most
livestock, working with and handling them makes them easier to handle when you need to
vaccinate or shear them. Training builds the animal’s trust.

Fencing, Facilities and Feed

They don’t try to escape fences like goats so a basic 48-inch woven wire livestock fence
contains them. You may want to add an electric wire to deter predators. Most predators do
not attack an adult animal, they attack crias (babies). While they only need a 3-sided
roofed enclosure, some owners may prefer to provide them with a barn. Being a herd
animal, they don’t require individual stalls but providing a way to separate the barn is useful
if you are breeding animals. They do well on a wide variety of forages and only require 1.8-
2% of their body weight in forage per day. While a grass pasture with some legumes in it can
be enough, you may want to supplement this with pellets balanced for camelids. Grass hay
should test 8-10% protein. As with all livestock, they must have access to clean unfrozen
water.

References:

Camelid Resources, Healthy Farms Healthy Agriculture
https://www.healthyagriculture.org/livestock/camelids/

Rabbits

Rabbits make good animals to have on small properties and for 4-H projects. They can be
raised just for the fun of it or they can be used for their fur (angora breed) or for meat.

Fencing, Facilities and Feed

To keep them healthy, it’s best to keep them in a climate-controlled area. The hutch should
be at least 18 inches high, and the floor space needs to be ¾ square feet per pound of
mature weight of your rabbit breed. The floor and sides should be made of ½ inch by 1 inch
wire mesh while the floor should be ½ inch by ½ inch mesh. You can try to formulate your
own hay and grain ration but purchasing a pre-formulated pellet most likely be more
convenient and provide a better-balanced diet. Providing them a leafy green treat
periodically is fine, just don’t make it most of their diet.

References:

Poultry and Rabbit Resources, Oregon State University Extension
https://extension.oregonstate.edu/animals-livestock/poultry-rabbits

Bees

While most people do not consider bees as livestock, they are under certain
circumstances. A single hive is a hobby, but multiple hives can be a livestock operation.

Some people get into beekeeping thinking that they can save pollinators. This is not the
best reason to get into beekeeping. While they don’t take a lot of work, they do need routine
checks. They are just like keeping any other livestock or pet. A better strategy might be for
you to provide the forage plants for nearby native pollinators and local beekeepers. Lack of
good forage forces native pollinators and honeybees to compete for limited food sources.

One major consideration before getting into beekeeping is do you have enough forage
(flowering plants) around your property all growing season (early spring to late fall) to keep
a hive healthy. Do you have wildlife that visits your property that would love to break into
your hives, i.e. bears? If you don’t have enough forage for your bees, you end up
supplementing their forage. Remember that the bees need forage from early spring through
fall. A sudden burst of flowering plants from June to August is not enough to keep a hive fed
and healthy. Your bees will also be competing with native bees for their forage. A variety of
plants blooming at different times is better than a monoculture (i.e. and alfalfa field) to
provide all the nutrients they need to be healthy.

Beginning beekeepers should work with an experienced beekeeper or take a class to learn
how to care for their hives. This is an expensive hobby to get into and if you want to be
successful, you need to know what you are doing.

Unless you can get a swarm from an existing beekeeper, you need to order your hive and
queen in the spring. The hive should be set up and ready before your bees arrive. There are
different types of bees so do your homework to figure out what type of bees and queen suit
your area and beekeeping method.

References:

The Beekeeper’s Handbook, Diana Sammataro

Feeding Honey Bees in Colorado, CSU Extension
https://www.extension.colostate.edu/docs/pubs/insect/05622.pdf

Colorado Beekeepers Association
https://coloradobeekeepers.org/

American Beekeeping Federation
https://www.abfnet.org/